Which protective equipment would the nurse use when caring for an infant admitted with gastroenteritis select all that apply one some or all responses may be correct?

Gastroenteritis is inflammation of the digestive tract that results in vomiting, diarrhea, or both and is sometimes accompanied by fever or abdominal cramps.

• Gastroenteritis is usually caused by a viral, bacterial, or parasitic infection.

• The infection causes a combination of vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever, and poor appetite, which can lead to dehydration.

• The child’s symptoms and history of exposure help the doctor confirm the diagnosis.

• Gastroenteritis is best prevented by encouraging children and their caretakers to wash their hands and teaching them to avoid improperly stored foods and contaminated water.

• Fluids and rehydrating solutions are given, but sometimes children need to see a doctor, and even to be hospitalized.

About 3 to 5 billion episodes occur worldwide each year, most commonly in children under 5 years of age who live in countries where children are more vulnerable and care is often not easy to access. Worldwide, about 1.5 to 2.5 million children die each year of diarrhea and dehydration caused by gastroenteritis. In countries where children are well nourished and have access to excellent medical care (most importantly, hydrating fluids given by vein [intravenously] when needed), the consequences are not as severe. However, acute gastroenteritis is still a frequent problem in the United States. Each year, gastroenteritis is responsible for about 1.5 million doctor visits, 200,000 hospital admissions, and 300 deaths.

Most gastroenteritis is caused by

Rarer causes of gastroenteritis include

Viruses are the most common cause of gastroenteritis in the United States. Four categories of viruses cause most gastroenteritis. The two most common are

• Norovirus (most common in the United States)

• Rotavirus (most common worldwide)

Most other viral cases are caused by astrovirus or adenovirus.

Children usually contract viral gastroenteritis from other children who have had it or who have been exposed to it, such as those in child care centers, schools, and other crowded settings. Viral gastroenteritis is very contagious and spreads particularly easily from child to child.

Fecal-oral transmission is the usual way that viral gastroenteritis spreads. Fecal-oral means that viruses in the diarrhea stool (feces) from an infected person are taken into the mouth of another person. Of course, people do not ingest stool directly. Instead, children with diarrhea and/or their caretakers may have some infected stool on their hands (particularly when they do not thoroughly wash their hands). Then any objects they touch (such as a diaper, a toy, or food) also become contaminated with infected stool. Other children who touch that object and then put their hands and fingers in and near their mouth may get infected by the virus. Viral gastroenteritis can also be spread by sneezing and spitting.

Norovirus has become the most common cause of gastroenteritis in all age groups, including children, in the United States since the introduction of rotavirus vaccines. This virus commonly affects children between 6 months and 18 months of age. Infections occur year-round, but 80% occur from November to April. Most people are infected after swallowing contaminated food or water. Because norovirus is highly contagious, infection can easily be spread from person to person. Norovirus causes most cases of gastroenteritis epidemics that occur on cruise ships and in nursing homes.

Astrovirus can infect people of all ages but usually infects infants and young children. Infection is most common in the winter and is spread by fecal-oral transmission.

Adenovirus most commonly affects children under the age of 2. Infections occur year-round and increase slightly in the summer. The infection is spread by fecal-oral transmission.

The bacteria that most commonly cause gastroenteritis include

Children can contract bacterial gastroenteritis by

• Touching or eating contaminated foods, particularly raw or inadequately cooked meats, poultry, or eggs

• Eating contaminated shellfish

• Drinking unpasteurized milk or juice

• Touching animals that carry certain bacteria

• Swallowing contaminated water, such as from wells, streams, and swimming pools

Children can contract gastroenteritis by swallowing or swimming in contaminated water, such as from wells, streams, water parks, and swimming pools (called recreational water illness).

Gastroenteritis may result from ingesting chemical toxins Overview of Food Poisoning Food poisoning results from eating a plant or animal that contains a toxin. The poisoning occurs after ingesting poisonous species of mushrooms or plants or contaminated fish or shellfish. The... read more . These toxins can be found in plants, such as poisonous mushrooms Mushroom (Toadstool) Poisoning Many species of mushroom are poisonous and can cause different symptoms depending on the type of mushroom. Different species of mushrooms produce different toxins with different effects Even... read more , or in certain kinds of exotic seafood Fish and Shellfish Poisoning Certain types of fresh or frozen fish or shellfish may contain toxins that can cause a variety of symptoms. Vomiting and diarrhea ( gastroenteritis) caused by toxins is different from gastroenteritis... read more . Children who eat these substances may develop gastroenteritis. Children also can develop gastroenteritis after drinking water or eating food that is contaminated by chemicals such as arsenic, lead Lead Poisoning Lead poisoning affects many parts of the body, including the brain, nerves, kidneys, liver, and blood. Children are particularly susceptible because their nervous system is still developing... read more , mercury, or cadmium.

Symptoms of gastroenteritis are usually a combination of

• Vomiting

• Diarrhea

• Abdominal cramps

• Fever

• Poor appetite

The most common symptoms of gastroenteritis, regardless of cause, are vomiting and diarrhea. Gastroenteritis resulting from an infection can also cause fever. Abdominal pain is also common.

Viruses cause watery diarrhea. Stools rarely contain mucus or blood.

Norovirus causes more vomiting than diarrhea in children and lasts only 1 to 2 days. Children have abdominal cramps and may have fever, headache, and muscle aches.

Adenovirus causes mild vomiting 1 to 2 days after diarrhea starts. The diarrhea can last 1 to 2 weeks.

Astrovirus symptoms are similar to a mild rotavirus infection.

Parasites typically cause diarrhea that may last for a long time and may cause diarrhea that comes and goes. The diarrhea is usually not bloody. Children may be very tired and lose weight when they have long-lasting diarrhea caused by a parasitic infection.

Infants are much more likely than older children to become dehydrated and develop serious side effects. Infants who are dehydrated need medical care right away.

Danger signs of dehydration in infants that require immediate medical care include the following:

• The soft spot on the head is sunken.

• The eyes are sunken.

• There are no tears when they cry.

• The mouth is dry.

• They are not producing much urine.

• They have reduced alertness and energy (lethargy).

However, it can be hard to tell how much urine diapered children who are having frequent watery stools are producing. It is easier to identify a decrease in the passage of urine and excessive thirst in older children.

• Symptoms, the child's history, and a physical examination

• Sometimes tests on stool

A doctor bases the diagnosis of gastroenteritis on the child’s symptoms and on the parents’ responses to questions about what the child has been exposed to.

The diagnosis of gastroenteritis is usually obvious from the symptoms alone, but the cause often is not. Sometimes other family members have recently been ill with similar symptoms. Other times, gastroenteritis can be traced to contaminated water or inadequately cooked, spoiled, or contaminated food, such as raw seafood or mayonnaise left out of the refrigerator too long. Recent travel, especially to certain foreign countries, and recent antibiotic use may give doctors clues to the cause as well.

Diagnostic tests are not usually needed because most forms of gastroenteritis last a short time. However, if the symptoms are severe or last for more than 48 hours, stool samples may be examined in a laboratory for white blood cells and bacteria, viruses, or parasites. Blood tests may be done as well to look for signs of complications.

Children who are old enough should be taught to wash their hands and to avoid improperly stored foods and contaminated water. A good general guideline is to keep cold foods cold and hot foods hot. Food placed out for consumption should be consumed within an hour.

Breastfeeding Breastfeeding Breast milk is the ideal food for newborns. Although babies may be fed breast milk or formula, the World Health Organization (WHO) and American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommend exclusive... read more

Parents can help prevent dehydration by encouraging their child to drink fluids even if just in small, frequent amounts.

Infants and children with a weakened immune system should not touch reptiles, birds, or amphibians because these animals typically carry Salmonella bacteria, and infection is more severe in these children.

Parents can prevent recreational water illnesses by not allowing their children to swim in public water if they have diarrhea. Children who wear diapers should be checked frequently for stool and changed in an area that is not near the water. Parents should teach their children to avoid swallowing water when they swim.

• Fluids and rehydration solutions

• Rarely antibiotics for certain infections

• Rarely drugs to limit vomiting or diarrhea

Usually the only treatment needed for gastroenteritis is getting bed rest and drinking an adequate amount of fluids.

Once a child has gastroenteritis, parents should monitor their child’s hydration status. Drugs that stop diarrhea or antibiotics might be given but only in certain specific situations under the guidance of a doctor.

Children should be encouraged to drink fluids even if just in small, frequent amounts. Infants should continue to breastfeed or drink formula in addition to an oral electrolyte solution (oral rehydration solution Treatment Dehydration is loss of water from the body, usually caused by vomiting and/or diarrhea. Dehydration occurs when there is significant loss of body water and, to varying amounts, electrolytes... read more —available as powders and liquids in pharmacies and some grocery stores). Juice, soda, carbonated beverages, teas, sports drinks, and beverages containing caffeine should not be given to infants and young children. These drinks may contain too much sugar, which can worsen diarrhea, and contain too few salts (electrolytes), which are needed to replace those the body has lost. For adolescents, sports drinks are preferable to juice and soda because of their lower sugar content, but they still have lower amounts of electrolytes than oral electrolyte solutions. Plain water is not ideal for treating dehydration in children of any age because there are no salts in plain water.

Children who are vomiting should be given frequent small amounts of fluid to help prevent dehydration. Parents should offer the child a few sips of a liquid. If the liquid is not vomited, the sips are repeated every 10 or 15 minutes, increasing the amount given to an ounce or two after an hour or so and increased as tolerated. These larger amounts can be given less often, about every hour. Liquids are absorbed very quickly, so if the child vomits more than 10 minutes after drinking, most of the liquid has been absorbed and the liquids should be continued. The amount of liquid to give a child within a 24-hour period depends on the child’s age and weight but generally should be about 1½ to 2½ ounces of liquid for each pound the child weighs. If the child’s vomiting or diarrhea lessens, parents may try feeding a more normal diet the next day. Electrolyte solutions should not be continued alone for longer than 24 hours because of potential problems associated with inadequate nutritional intake.

Children who have diarrhea but little vomiting should get extra fluid to make up for the fluid lost in the diarrhea. But, unlike children with vomiting, they may be given larger amounts of fluid at a time and they are fed their normal diet. However, if the child has significant diarrhea, consumption of dairy products (which contain lactose) should probably be reduced. Severe gastroenteritis may decrease the child’s ability to absorb lactose, resulting in even more diarrhea.

Children who cannot keep down even sips of liquid or who have signs of severe dehydration (such as lethargy, dry mouth, lack of tears, and no urine for 6 hours or more) are in danger and should see a doctor immediately. Children who do not have these signs should see a doctor if symptoms last more than 1 or 2 days. If the dehydration is severe, the doctor may give the child fluids by vein (intravenously).

Antidiarrheal drugs such as loperamide should not be given to children under 18 years of age.

For children who have severe vomiting, doctors may give certain drugs that relieve vomiting (such as ondansetron) by mouth or intravenously.

Antibiotics are of no value when a viral infection is the cause of gastroenteritis. Doctors give antibiotics only when gastroenteritis has been caused by specific bacteria (such as Shigella or Campylobacter) that are known to respond to antibiotics.

Certain drugs (such as metronidazole and nitazoxanide) may be given for a parasitic infection.

Probiotics are organisms such as bacteria that are naturally found in the body and promote the growth of good bacteria. They are also in foods and can be taken as supplements. Probiotics, such as lactobacillus (typically present in yogurt), may slightly shorten the duration of diarrhea (perhaps by a day) if people begin taking them soon after the illness starts. However, probiotics probably do not prevent more serious consequences of gastroenteritis, such as the need for intravenous fluids or for hospitalization.

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