The desire to establish and maintain many rewarding interpersonal relationships.
A feeling of deprivation about existing social relations.
The phenomenon whereby the more often people are exposed to a stimulus, the more positively they evaluate that
stimulus.
What-Is-Beautiful-Is-Good Stereotype
The belief that physically attractive individuals also possess desirable personality characteristics.
The proposition that people are attracted to others who are similar in physical attractiveness.
A mutual exchange between what we give and receive - for example, liking those who like us.
The tendency to prefer people who are highly selective in their social choices over those who are more readily available.
A close relationship between two adults involving emotional attachment, fulfillment of psychological needs, or interdependence.
A perspective that views people as motivated to maximize benefits and minimize costs in their relationships with others.
The theory that people are most satisfied with a relationship when the ration between benefits and contributions is similar for both partners.
A relationship in which the participants expect and desire strict reciprocity in
their interactions.
A relationship in which the participants expect and desire mutual responsiveness to each other's needs.
The way a person typically interacts with significant others.
Triangular Theory of Love
A theory proposing
that love has three basic components - intimacy, passion, and commitment - that can be combined to produce eight subtypes.
Romantic love characterized by high arousal, intense attraction, and fear of rejection.
A secure, trusting, stable partnership.
Excitation Transfer Theory
Arousal from almost any source can increase aggression
Revelations about the self that a person makes to others.
A person's preference for members of the same sex, opposite sex, or both sexes.
Actions intended to benefit others.
Preferential helping of genetic relatives, which results in the greater likelihood that genes held in common will survive.
Understanding or vicariously experiencing another individual's perspective and feeling sympathy and compassion for that individual.
Arousal: Cost-Reward Model
The proposition that people react to emergency situations by acting in the most cost-effective way to reduce the arousal of shock and alarm.
Negative State Relief Model
The proposition that people help others in order to counteract their own feelings of sadness.
Motivated by the desire to increase one's own welfare.
Motivated by the desire to improve another's welfare.
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
The proposition that empathic concern for a person in need produces an altruistic motive for helping.
The effect whereby the presence of others inhibits helping.
The state in which people in a group mistakenly think that their own individual thoughts, feelings, or behaviors are different from those of the others in the group.
Diffusion of Responsibility
The belief that others will or should take the responsibility for providing assistance to a person in need.
Reluctance to help for fear of making a bad impression on observers.
A general rule of conduct reflecting standards of social approval and disapproval.
Behavior intended
to harm another individual
Aggressive behavior whereby harm is inflicted as a means to a desired end (also called instrumental aggression).
Aggressive behavior where the means and the end coincide; harm is inflicted for its own sake.
The theory that behavior is learned through the observation of others as well as through the
direct experience of rewards and punishments.
The transmission of domestic violence across generations.
Frustration - Aggression Hypothesis
The idea that frustration always elicits the motive to aggress and all aggression is caused by frustration.
Aggressing against a substitute target because aggressive acts against the source of the frustration are inhibited by fear or lack of access.
A reduction of the motive to aggress that is said to result from any imagined, observed, or actual act of aggression.
The tendency that the likelihood of aggression will increase by the mere presence of
weapons.
The tendency to perceive hostile intent in others.
In the context of aggression, rumination involves repeatedly thinking about and reliving an anger-inducing event, focusing on angry thoughts and feelings, and perhaps even planning or imagining revenge.
Reduction in emotion-related physiological reactivity in response
to a stimulus.
Two Steps in Similarity (Attraction Relationship)
Avoid dissimilar others
Approach similar others
What do men value in a partner?
Physical attractiveness (fertility
cues) and chastity (due to paternal uncertainty)
What to women value in a partner?
Flattery that aims to manipulate
Exception to the Reciprocation of Liking
Good at screening out undesirables
Good at matching people with similar attitudes and values
Bat ad
matching people with compatible personalities
Ignores real interaction, stress, and promotes misleading "destiny" beliefs
Difference between same-sex friendships (men vs. women)
Women's tend to be "face-to-face" (talk)
Men's tend to be "side-by-side" (activites)
- Secure
- Avoidant (hard to get close to people)
- Anxious / Ambivalent (worried partner will leave you)
Social Responsibility Norm
We should help others who depend on us
Why does modeling increase helping behavior?
Focuses attention on helping
Supplies information on what is appropriate
Supplies information about consequence
If the victim's problem was controllable, we feel disgust and don't help.
If it was uncontrollable, we feel sympathy and want to help.
Reinforcement's Impact on Helping
Helping increases when it's rewarded
5 Steps to the Bystander Effect
Noticing
Interpreting
Taking Responsibility
Deciding How to Help
Providing Help
What kind of person is the
most helpful?
Agreeable, humble, and happy.
Why are happy people the most helpful?
Trying to maintain their happiness
Having happy thoughts leads to helpfulness
Effect of guilt
on helpfulness
People who feel guilty tend to be more helpful
After harming someone, we "repair" the damage
Which gender is more helpful?
Women - more emotional support, more concerned with others
Men - agentic, more
likely to help when strength is needed or when it is dangerous.
Focused more on themselves than on others
Evolutionary Perspective on Aggression
Aggression is part of our genetic makeup - it's an instinct
Evolutionist Perspective on Aggression Turned Inward
Self punishment or masochism
Evolutionist Perspective on Aggression Turned Outward
Hydraulic Model of Aggression
Aggression
builds up inside of us unless it's expressed
It is an inevitable negative facet of life
Aggression needs to be channeled in socially desirable ways
Difference in Aggression Between Sexes
Women - inflict emotional or relational aggression
Men - aggression does physical damage
Individual Differences Related to Aggression
Traumatized (bullied)
Psychotic
Psychopathic (not feeling empathy for others)
Angry / Emotional Aggression
Heavy TV viewers are biased - see life as dangerous
Result
of heavy TV viewers
Overestimate chance of experiencing violence
Harmful Effects of Media Violence
- Introduces new forms of aggression
- "Primes" violent ideas
- Desensitization (reduces emotional sensitivity)
How do people
try to balance time alone and time with others?
People are motivated to maintain an optimum balance of time alone and social contact.
According to the relevant research, who is likely to be the loneliest?
José, who is an adolescent
According to your textbook, the single best predictor of whether 2 people will get together is
Lee (2008) and colleagues ran a study in which they examined people’s ratings of photos on the website HOTorNOT.com. What did they find?
The participants' own level of attractiveness did not predict their ratings of the photos.
What is not a reason that we are attracted to averaged faces?
What are the benefits and costs of being attractive?
While attractiveness often brings a social advantage to attractive individuals, it can cause them to doubt the sincerity of others’ praise for their work.
Popular wisdom is often contradictory, as with the following two sayings: 1) “opposites attract” and 2) “birds of a feather flock together.” Research on the relationship between similarity and liking suggests that..
#2 is more accurate; people tend to be more attracted to those who are similar to themselves.
Walster et al (1996) randomly matched students for a dance. At the end of the evening, students indicated how satisfied they were with their dates. The strongest predictor of satisfaction was..
Pinel and colleagues (2006) refer to "I-sharing" as an important form os similarity whereby individuals share what?
Eastwick and Finkel (2008) examined men’s and women’s preferences during a speed dating event. They found significant gender differences in what men and women reported as important mate characteristics before the event began—differences that _________ once they actually started interacting with the potential mates at the event.
Bruce and Pam have just started dating. According to social exchange theory, their relationship is likely to last longer and be more satisfying if they each feel that..
the rewards gained from the relationship are greater than the cost of maintaining the relationship
Zachary is unhappy in his relationship and is trying to decide whether to break up with his girlfriend. What might encourage him to stay?
If his investment is high
In their relationship, Clyde is concerned with maintaining an equal ratio of rewards and costs, whereas Bonnie is concerned with being responsive to Clyde's needs. Clyde views their relationship as an ________ relationship, whereas Bonnie views it as an ________ relationship.
When they first started dating, Norma and Nathan didn’t share much about themselves with one another, but as their relationship developed, they began to talk more about personal issues and reveal more about themselves. What is their behavior most consistent with the predictions of?
Social Penetration Theory
In India and China, love is
not a sufficient basis for marriage.
Which of the following conclusions is not supported by data?
a. Men often tend to see the world in “sexualized” terms.
b. Men are more likely to fantasize about sex with multiple partners.
c. Men tend to be more sexually permissive than women.
d. Women do not engage in casual sex without emotional commitment.
Gay couples tend to _____ than straight couples.
divide household chores more evenly and retain relationships with former sex partners more
Pinker (2011) studied the prevalence of aggression across centuries. What did he find?
Aggression
has decreased over time
Though women are more likely than men to aggress in an intimate relationship, men’s aggression in such relationships differs in that it typically..
Has more severe consequences
Regarding self-esteem and aggression, which of the following is false?
a. Narcissism is a good predictor of aggression.
b. Low self-esteem is a good predictor of aggression.
c. Narcissism is correlated with aggression in response to provocation.
d. High self-esteem is predictive of aggression when combined with narcissism and provocation.
B
Low self-esteem is NOT a good predictor of aggression
The finding that male-to-male violence occurs primarily in response to status challenges, but male-to-female violence occurs primarily in response to sexual jealousy, supports...?
The evolutionary perspective on aggression
Research concerning the role of testosterone in aggression has demonstrated what?
Acts of aggression may increase levels of testosterone.
According to research on the role of the brain and executive function in predicting aggressive tendencies, when very aggressive teenagers witnessed a situation in which someone intentionally inflicted pain on another person, they exhibited brain activity associated with what?
Gershoff’s (2002) analysis of studies with over 36,000 participants indicates a positive correlation between corporal punishment and what?
Aggression as a child, aggression as an adult, AND adult criminal behavior
Ira believes that aggression is an acquired tendency picked up by observing others and by experience with rewards and punishments. Ira’s beliefs are most consistent with what?
Aggressive models teach aggressive behavior by all of the following except
a. teaching observers how to perform the aggressive act.
b. fostering positive attitudes toward aggression.
c. allowing observers to construct aggressive scripts.
d. increasing the frustration experienced by observers.
A reduction of the motive to aggress that is said to result from any imagined, observed, or actual act of aggression
According to Berkowitz’s (1989) revision of frustration-aggression theory, aggression is a response to
Research investigating the relationship between alcohol and aggression has shown what?
Intoxicated people are likely to base their aggressive responses on initial, salient information about a situation and fail to recognize later, subtle cues.
Rudolph is viewing some nonviolent pornography. In which of the following conditions is Rudolph most likely to show greater subsequent levels of aggression?
a. When he is angry
b. When the pornography portrays nude women
c. When Rudolph is sexually aroused by the pornography
d. When Rudolph has not viewed pornography before
One of the most successful treatments for violent juvenile delinquents is called what?
Which hormone has been implicated by neuroscientists in empathy and prosocial behaviors?
The negative state relief model of helping behavior...
identifies yet another way in which helping can be egoistic.
Research by Rilling et al. (2002) suggests that ________ behavior is linked to activation of the brain in areas associated with processing rewards.
7. “Good Samaritan” laws
a. encourage bystanders to intervene in emergencies.
b. increase the cost of failing to help.
c. are fairly rare in the United States.
d. All of these
According to the empathy-altruism hypothesis, altruistic behavior is primarily the result of..
taking another's perspective
The empathy-altruism model suggests that when escape from a situation is easy, people will..
offer help only when they have empathic concern.
Research by Omoto and Snyder (1995) found that volunteers who decided to help AIDs victims had ______ service if their motives were ______.
Which of the following is not one of the five steps to helping proposed by Latané and Darley (1970)?
a. Interpret the event as an emergency
b. Invoke the norm of reciprocity
c. Take responsibility for providing help
d. Notice that something is happening
Dewanto hears what sounds like gunshots coming from the school parking lot. None of his classmates appears concerned, so Dewanto assumes that they know the sound was only a car backfiring or someone playing with firecrackers. Dewanto’s beliefs illustrate..
The belief that others will or should take the responsibility for providing assistance to a person in need is called
Diffusion of responsibility
According to Latané and Darley’s (1970) five-step model of helping, analysis of costs and rewards occurs at what step?
Darley and Batson (1973) found that the helping behavior of seminary students was best predicted by..
Which social norm suggests that people who are fairly well-off in life should use their position to help those who are in need?
Whether or not someone seems responsible for her own predicament is more influential on helping behavior..
in individualistic cultures
Some cross-racial helping is not truly altruistic because it can be a sign of
Feelings
of superiority over the person being helped